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    Syncopation
    an “off-the-beat” accent (between the counted numbers)
    Ritardando
    gradually SLOWING DOWN the tempo
    Accelerando
    gradually SPEEDING UP the tempo
    Rubato
    freely and expressively making subtle changes in the tempo. (a technique commonly encountered in music of the Romantic era)
    DYNAMICS
    the relative loudness (or quietness) of music
    Rhythm
    is the element of “TIME” in music.
    TEMPO
    the speed of the BEAT
    METER
    Beats organized into recognizable/recurring accent patterns. Meter can
    be seen/felt through the standard patterns used by conductors.
    Melody
    the LINEAR/HORIZONTAL presentation of pitch
    pitch
    the word used to
    describe the highness or lowness of a musical sound
    scales
    (families of pitches)
    CONJUNCT
    smooth; easy to sing or play)
    DISJUNCT
    (disjointedly ragged or jumpy; difficult to sing or play).
    Harmony
    is the VERTICALIZATION of pitch. often described in terms of its relative HARSHNESS
    chords
    (several notes played simultaneously as a
    “block”)
    DISSONANCE
    a harsh-sounding harmonic combination

    produce musical “tension” which is often “released” by
    resolving to consonant chords.

    CONSONANCE
    a smooth-sounding harmonic combination
    Modality
    harmony created out of the ancient Medieval/Renaissance modes.
    Tonality
    harmony that focuses on a “home” key center.
    Atonality
    modern harmony that AVOIDS any sense of a “home” key center.
    TONE COLOR
    Different sounds from different instruments playing the same note due to their unique properties.
    Texture
    refers to the number of individual musical lines (melodies) and the relationship these lines have to one another
    Monophonic texture
    Music with only one note sounding at a time (having no harmony or accompaniment)
    Homophonic texture
    Music with two or more notes sounding at a the same time, but generally featuring a prominent melody in the upper part, supported by a less intricate harmonic accompaniment underneath (often based on homogeneous chords—BLOCKS of sound).
    Polyphonic texture
    Music with two or more independent melodies sounding at the same time.
    canon and fugue
    may introduce three, four, five or more independent melodies simultaneously! This manner of writing is called COUNTERPOINT.
    Imitative texture
    a special type of polyphonic texture produced whenever a musical idea is ECHOED from “voice” to “voice”. Although imitation can be used in monophonic styles, it is more prevalent in polyphonic art-music— especially from the Renaissance and Baroque periods.
    Strophic Form
    a design in VOCAL music, in which the same music is used for several different verses (strophes) of words. [Example: “Deck the Halls” has many verses of words sung to the same music.]
    Through-composed
    a structure in which there is no repeat or return of any
    large-scale musical section. [Example: Schubert’s “Erlkönig”.]
    Binary Form
    a two-part form in which both main sections are repeated (as indicated in the diagram by “repeat marks”). The basic premise of this form is CONTRAST:
    Ternary Form
    a three-part form featuring a return of the initial music after a contrasting section. Symmetry and balance are achieved through this return of material
    Order of historical periods from earliest to latest
    middle ages, renaissance, baroque, classic, romantic, modern
    Benjamin Britten
    the most important British composer of the 20th century. He wrote over 100 major works including operas, songs, string quartets and other chamber works, a violin concerto, choral works, incidental music, symphonies and other orchestral works. Of these, he
    is best known for the Young Person’s Guide to the Orchestra
    Piano was invented in
    the classic era
    ensemble
    is a group of musicians playing together
    genre
    The “type” of piece that a musician
    plays (such as symphony, concerto, Mass, motet, etc.)
    Orchestra (also called Symphony or Symphony Orchestra)
    divided into four main families of instruments: string, woodwind, brass, and percussion.
    Concert Band
    an orchestra without strings, with more emphasis given to the brass, woodwind and percussion.
    Basso Continuo
    provided an improvised harmonic accompaniment for many types of Baroque music

    usually comprised of a keyboard instrument and a melodic bass instrument

    Chamber Ensembles
    groups of 1 to 10 players that perform chamber music (usually without a conductor).
    The string quartet and the woodwind quintet are the most common examples
    the conductor’s greatest responsibility
    is to determine the proper interpretation of the music
    vocables
    syllables of chanted prayers that often sound like as “heyah” or “yu-way” Native American
    call and response
    the leader of the song will improvise a narrative “call” about a past or current event, and then the group at-large will sing a repeated “response,” that remains the same throughout the song. African originally
    African Music
    Improvisation and intricate polyrhythms (the simultaneous combination of
    two or more different rhythmic patterns) are richly abundant in African music, and
    African musicians have developed these to a much higher level than usually
    encountered in traditional Western musical styles.
    Gamelan
    INDONESIA)) is a colorful instrumental ensemble, comprised primarily of unusual percussion instruments including drums, gongs, and xylophones made of wood (such as the gender) or bronze (such as the
    bonang).

    feature pitches that
    sound “out-of-tune” to Western ears (microtones)

    INDIAN MUSIC
    ragas (melodic patterns) and talas (rhythmic patterns)

    Indian music is transferred orally from master-teacher (guru) to the student, who learns by strictly imitating the teacher—not from a written tradition.

    Sitar
    long necked lute, important Indian instrument
    Ravi SHANKAR
    best known in the West for his performance at Woodstock in 1969.

    Mara-Bihag is his song

    Koto
    Japanese 13 string 5 note pentatonic scale
    Ud
    Middle east, short necked pear shaped 5 strings played as a monophonic instrument
    Music in the Middle Ages
    began as monophonic chant, then around 1000 A.D.,
    new types of polyphony developed and gradually expanded in rhythm, harmony and texture until reaching an extremely complex style in the late 1300s.
    HILDEGARD of Bingen
    (1098-1179; Germany)
    This Catholic nun is noted for her expressive chants and hymns. She was also a
    visionary/mystic who wrote on theology, politics, medicine, and science
    LEONIN and PEROTIN
    (c. 1135-1201) and (1180-c.1207—France)
    These two composers worked at the Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris and are noted for developing an early type of polyphony called organum.
    Guillaume de MACHAUT
    (c. 1300-1377; France)
    The most important composer of the Middle Ages; He brought Medieval music to its height of
    rhythmic and harmonic complexity.
    The Mass “Ordinary”
    the five standard prayers of the Mass that are used every day—
    the Kyrie, Gloria, Credo, Sanctus, and Agnus Dei
    The Mass “Proper”
    15 prayers that change daily to focus on the specific occasion
    being celebrated in the church calendar—the most important church festivals
    being Easter and Christmas.
    melismas
    many notes sung to each syllable of the text
    recitational style
    (one note sung per syllable of text)
    chant
    (music sung to a single unaccompanied melody in a free rhythm). Prominent until polyphony around 1000ad
    This bold step is perhaps
    the single most important occurrence in the history of Western music.
    Around the year 1000, composers in Europe began to experiment with polyphony (music based on several simultaneous sounds).
    Organum
    This technique features long-held notes in the lower part (actually a chant melody moving
    very slowly), with choppy, faster-moving voices in the upper parts (based on secular
    dance rhythms. In organum, the voices often sing extended melismas (many notes
    sung on one syllable of text—a technique that expressively emphasizes the most
    important words of a prayer).
    motet
    emerged out of organum—as words were interpolated onto each note of a melisma to create a more syllabic and metrical style.

    Note: The biggest difference
    between a musical Mass and a motet is the TEXT (a motet can never be based on
    a Mass text)

    Guillaume de MACHAUT
    Missa Notre Dame

    This was a major innovation in
    Western music—the first time the five prayers of the Mass Ordinary were musically set
    into a reusable POLYPHONIC composition

    Important Musical Considerations in the Renaissance
    • Polyphonic Imitation (a musical idea that is immediately echoed by another
    voice part or instrument)
    • Word-painting (using musical symbolism to represent the meaning of the text;
    most common in the madrigal)
    • The Invention of Music Printing (by the Italian printer, Petrucci, in 1501)
    • The Rise of Secular Music
    • Polyphonic Imitation
    (a musical idea that is immediately echoed by another
    voice part or instrument)
    • Word-painting
    (using musical symbolism to represent the meaning of the text;
    most common in the madrigal)
    Medieval vs. Renaissance composition
    Renaissance composers began to write in a new way called simultaneous composition, in which all the voice parts were constructed together phrase-by-phrase

    Medieval manner of successive composition, in which the chant line was predetermined, an upper melody was constructed next, and the inner voices
    were filled in last.

    cadences
    conclusive phrase/section endings analogous to
    punctuation/inflection in written/spoken language
    JOSQUIN DESPREZ
    (c. 1440-1521; Flanders)
    Josquin, the most famous composer of the mid-Renaissance, established a
    new, beautifully-expressive sound based on constantly-changing textures in
    his Masses, motets and songs.
    Giovanni da PALESTRINA
    (c. 1524-94; Italy) While working at the Vatican in Rome, Palestrina became the most esteemed master of late-Renaissance sacred music, noted for his rich and
    lyrical Masses and motets.
    Thomas WEELKES
    (c. 1575-1623; England) One of several important composers at the court of Queen Elizabeth I. He is
    noted for his secular madrigals and Anglican church music.
    Carlo GESUALDO
    (c. 1560-1613; Italy)
    A transitional figure between late-Renaissance and early-Baroque styles, known especially for his highly intense Italian madrigals.
    motet
    a polyphonic choral work based on a sacred Latin text

    Although a motet can sound like a Mass, a Mass is based on one of the five prayers of the “Ordinary” (see previous chapter), while a motet has some other type of religious text.

    Imitation
    n (echoed entrances) was an
    essential feature Polyphonic Masses
    madrigal
    The most artistic genre of secular vocal music

    a polyphonic work for a small group of unaccompanied singers

    used a lot of imitation and word painting

    hallmark of Baroque musical style
    dramatic contrast

    instrumental music became more significant than vocal music, with
    the organ, harpsichord, and the violin family being the most favored instruments.

    Harmony moved towards tonality (centered around a single “home-key” pitch called a “tonic”). By
    1700, motoric rhythm (a constant pulse or beat) was a primary feature of Western music

    In the Baroque
    music was written in polyphonic counterpoint (with several complex independent melodic lines occurring simultaneously within a work).
    basso continuo
    a small “back-up” instrumental group that provided an improvised harmonic accompaniment for
    many types of Baroque music
    Claudio MONTEVERDI
    (c. 1567-1643; Italy)
    Shortly after 1600, Monteverdi initiated the Baroque with a daring and
    dramatic new approach to vocal music (particularly opera).
    Henry PURCELL
    (c. 1659-95; England)
    Considered the greatest English composer of his day, Purcell is noted for his
    stage works, choral music, songs, and keyboard music.
    Arcangelo CORELLI
    (c. 1653-1713; Italy)
    The first Western composer to write only instrumental music. He is known
    for his trio sonatas and concertos.
    Johann PACHELBEL
    (c. 1653-1706; Germany)
    This Lutheran organist was an influential predecessor of Johann Sebastian
    Bach.
    Antonio VIVALDI
    (1678-1741; Italy)
    This Catholic priest was the greatest Baroque violinist. He wrote over 500
    concertos and over 50 operas.
    (1685-1750; Germany)
    This Lutheran organist and choir director was the greatest master of
    Baroque counterpoint, and one of the most important composers in music
    history. He is known for a wide variety of instrumental and vocal works,
    especially his cantatas, concertos, and keyboard music.
    Georg Frideric HANDEL
    (1685-1759; German-born)
    This cosmopolitan composer was born in Germany, but spent most of his
    career working in Italy and England. His powerful operas and oratorios are
    landmarks of the majestic late-Baroque style.
    Ritornello form
    a design used in most large-ensemble Baroque works based on an alternating pattern of opposing performing groups (big vs. small) that contrast
    throughout a movement
    tutti
    full orchestra in ritornello
    canon
    usually small in scope, with a short bit of material stated by the initial “voice” (the “leader”) then echoed strictly by one or more subsequent “voices” (the “follower[s]”)
    Fugue
    the most complex polyphonic approach ever conceived in Western art music. In a fugue, a substantial melodic idea (called a “subject”) is stated, then strictly imitated and/or manipulated in sophisticated ways
    The greatest master of fugal
    technique and Baroque counterpoint was
    Bach
    sonata
    a multi-movement work “sounded” by instruments only
    Trio Sonatas
    have three structural lines of music performed by four players—two high instruments plus basso continuo
    The most important composer of trio sonatas was
    Arcangelo Corelli
    concerto
    a dramatic multi-movement work that requires an orchestra.
    Baroque suite
    a set of dance movements from various countries, written for orchestra or solo harpsichord
    Opera
    uses solo singers, orchestra, chorus,
    costumes, staging, scenery, and a dramatic “libretto” (story).
    oratorio
    a large multi-movement vocal work
    cantata
    a multi-movement vocal work with orchestral accompaniment, similar to an oratorio, yet much smaller in scope.

    require no staging,
    costumes, or scenery.

    In the Classic period, the Baroque aesthetic of dramatic contrast was replaced
    by
    debate (direct conflict between opposing ideas for the ultimate purpose of
    resolving that tension and unifying the structure).
    • Franz Josef HAYDN
    (1732-1809; Austro-Hungarian)
    The most influential innovator of the early Classic style; known primarily for his symphonies, string quartets and piano sonatas.
    • Wolfgang Amadeus MOZART
    (1756-1791; Austrian)
    Arguably the greatest musician in the Western history. This common-born child
    prodigy began composing at the age of four; by age seven, he had amazed every
    major Head-of-State in Europe with his miraculous abilities as a pianist, violinist and
    singer. His undeniable God-given talent directly challenged the supposed superiority
    of the upper classes. By the time he died at age 35, Mozart had written nearly 700
    works, mastering every genre known to him, and bringing art music to a new height of
    personal expression. His operas, concertos, symphonies, sonatas and choral music
    are still widely performed around the world.
    • Ludwig van BEETHOVEN
    (1770-1827; German)
    In the mid-1790s, while still in his 20s, Beethoven was recognized as the greatest
    pianist in the Empire; however, at the height of his performing career—at age 32—he
    went deaf! Despite this tremendous obstacle, through raw determination—he
    became the most revolutionary musician of the age, especially via his intense
    expansion of personal/ political expression through orchestral, chamber and keyboard
    music.
    Sonata form (also called “sonata-allegro form”)
    is a musical debate within a single
    movement based on the conflict and ultimate resolution of two opposing key
    centers.
    This unique Classic form has three distinct dramatic aspects within a binary harmonic plan
    Three aspects of Sonata form
    EXPOSITION (Tonal Opposition)
    The two opposing key centers (and associated themes) are introduced:
    Theme 1 is in the “home” key; Theme 2 is in a different key.
    DEVELOPMENT (Escalation of tension)
    The material passes rapidly through many distant keys, and may be fragmented/reworked
    in a variety of ways.
    RECAPITULATION (Tonal Resolution)
    Theme 1 and Theme 2 both appear in the “home” key. (In the tradition of
    Classic debate, Theme 2 realizes its weaker stance, and wholeheartedly
    throws its support to its opponent’s stronger argument—the “home’ key.)
    Medieval
    Machaut
    Renaissance
    Weelkes, Josquin Desprez
    Baroque
    Vivaldi, Bach, Handel
    Classic
    Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven
    Machaut
    Missa Notre Dame (Example of a Mass)
    Weelkes
    As Vesta Was From Latmos Hill Descending (Example of a madrigal)
    Josquin:
    Ave Maria…virgo serena (Example of a motet)
    Vivaldi
    : Spring, 1st movement, from The 4 Seasons (Example of Ritornello Form)
    JS Bach:
    Cantata No. 80 (example of a cantata that uses a Lutheran “CHORALE” tune)
    JS Bach
    : Little Fugue in G minor (example of a fugue “Subject”)
    Handel
    : Messiah (example of an Oratorio)
    Haydn
    : Symphony No. 94, 2nd movement (Example of Theme & Variations form)
    Mozart:
    Eine kleine Nachtmusik, 3rd movement (Example of “Minuet & Trio” form)
    Beethoven:
    Symphony No. 5 1st movement (example of Sonata Form)

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    Music. (2017, Aug 28). Retrieved from https://artscolumbia.org/music-20-9158/

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