We acquire knowledge through language, perception reason, and emotion but none of them can give us certainty. Good judgment is finding the right balance between skeptics and open-mindedness. Criteria to determine whether or not a claim is plausible: evidence and coherence. We should occasionally subject our beliefs to critical scrutiny if we want to be authentic and responsible. Chapter 2: The Nature of Knowledge Introduction Knowledge might be described as a concept in that it is not exhausted by a short definition and can only be understood through experience and reflection.
Starting point in the definition of knowledge = justified true belief. Knowledge as a justified true belief Truth is independent of what anyone happens to believe is true, and simply believing something is true does not make it true. Even if the majority believes in the fact that something is true, it can still be false. If you know something, then what you claim to know must not only be true, but you must also believe it to be true. Belief is a subjective requirement for truth. Vague belief: a belief with no evidence and readily abandoned with argument.
Well-supported belief: Belief supported by some evidence but lacking certainty. Belief beyond reasonable doubt: Having a firm belief in claims supporting one side while believing the counter argument to be insufficient. Having certainty in the statement. The important thing is to try to develop as reasonable and well-supported a set of beliefs as possible. Justification True belief is a sufficient condition and if you believe something while your belief is true, then you can be said to know it. However, your belief must also be justified in the right kind of way.
In order to be able to say you know something, you must be able to justify your belief and the justification must be of the right kind. The key thing that distinguishes acceptable from unacceptable justification seems to be reliability Perception is generally reliable although not infallible. Whether or not you are justified in saying you know something also depends on context. When you say you know something you are taking responsibility for its being true. Levels of Knowledge Much of what we claim to “know” is second-hand knowledge that we have acquired from other people and do not understand in any great detail.
Children who ask “why? ” are irritating because they bring to light the superficial nature of our understanding. Knowledge and information Drilling random facts into someone’s mind may be good for quiz shows but it does not lead to genuine understanding. A person with genuine knowledge does not merely have information about it but understands how the carious parts are related to one another to form a meaningful whole. While you cannot have knowledge without information, an area of knowledge is more than just a heap of information.
Acquiring information about something is not enough to understand it, one need to think about the information and how it hangs together. You can sometimes require knowledge simply by reflecting on the information you already have at your disposal rather than by looking for more information. Second-Hand Knowledge We are able to know a great deal more about the world than if we had to rely on our resources because we can share our experiences through language. Rather than reinventing the wheel, culture allows us to make progress by building on the achievements of past generations.
Authority worship: Blindly accepting what we are told without thinking about it. Second hand knowledge is also known as knowledge by authority or knowledge by testimony. Among the main sources of such knowledge are: cultural tradition, school, internet, expert opinion, news media. They are not infallible and we should be aware of their limitations. Cultural tradition The culture we grew up in has a strong influence on how we see the world. Cultural tradition embodies “the inherited wisdom of the community” Living traditions change and develop over time, we do not have to be restricted by our inheritance in the past.
We need to find the balance between respecting traditional thinking and be willing to question them to make progress in knowledge. School Schools play a key role in the passing of knowledge through generations. It is impossible to teach everything. School curriculums will be selective and cover a limited range. This raises the question between what should be included in the curriculum and the difference between education and indoctrination. Some argue that the hallmark of a good school is one that encourages you to question things and think for yourself. Internet
Advantage: speed and accessibility Disadvantage: Lack of quality control. It can be a source of not only information but also disinformation. Expert opinion A consequence of the growth of knowledge in our ciety is that it is no longer possible for a bright person to know everything. Despite relying on expert opinion, we should keep in mind two things: 1. Experts are fallible and sometimes get it wrong 2. Experts have a limited range of competence. News media We are all aware that there is some bias in both the selection and presentation of news stories.
Bad news: gives people an unduly pessimistic view of the state of the planet, create and sustain a climate of fear. Extraordinary news: Gradual changes that may have a significance effect on people’s lives tend to get little coverage. Relevant news: Concerns domestic citizens of the same country. Most people who follow current affairs choose outlets that reflect their pre-existing prejudices. We should occasionally select a news outlet that has a different opinion than our own to encourage us to question our assumptions and not take our way of looking at things for granted.
The limitations of second-hand knowledge Second hand knowledge can never be an original source of knowledge. Authority is not an original source of knowledge, our knowledge claims must ultimately be justified by perception, reason and intuition. Problems can arise if you rely only on judgment to determine the truth. Talking to people with different opinions may help us to improve our self-knowledge and develop a more balanced picture of the world Conclusion The difference between knowledge and belief is one of degree rather than kind. It consists of more than a jumble of isolated facts.
In order to gain a deeper understanding of an area of knowledge, you need a mixture of details and context. If you are never willing to test your ideas against those of other people, you may end up with a distorted and fantasy-ridden picture of the world. Chapter 3: Language Introduction Language is something that completely surrounds us that we rarely think about yet it has a central function in our lives. We use language to describe things, express our feelings, persuade people, tell jokes, write literature, and speculate about the meaning of life.
It is one of the main ways in which we acquire knowledge about the world. Language is not a perfect medium of communication. Ex. Difference in comprehension between individuals. Language is sometimes used to deliberately deceive and manipulate people. What is language? 1. Language is rule-governed 2. Language is intended 3. Language is creative and open-ended. Language is rule-governed Grammar gives the rules for how to combine words in the correct order and determines the meaning of a sentence. Vocabulary is also governed by arbitrary rules.
For communication to work, it does not matter what we correlate the objects with, so long as there is general agreement within the community. Language is intended A key thing that distinguishes the subset of communication that is language from other forms of communication is that the former is intended and the latter is not. There are situations where information is communicated but one would describe it as language. Language is creative and open-ended Rules of grammar and vocabulary allow us to create and understand sentences that have never been written or said before.
Languages are not static entities but change and develop over time, new words can be invented or can be borrowed from one another. Although we usually associate language with meaningful sounds, it could in principle express itself in any medium. The problem of meaning We need to be clear about the meanings of words if we are to understand the information that is being communicated. If you do not know what the key words are in a passage, you will not understand it. You must know what a sentence means before you can decide whether it is true or false.
