Chapter 1: Behaviorism is a school of thought that defines psychology as the scientific study of observable behavior, with a focus on stimulus-response relationships. Gestalt psychology is a school of thought rooted in the idea that perception is greater than the sum of its parts, and is a reaction to structuralism and functionalism. Freud’s psychoanalysis is a theory of personality and method of psychotherapy that assumes our motives are largely unconscious. He proposed the existence of the unconscious and attempted to explain personality, motivation, and mental disorders. Skinner believed that organisms tend to repeat responses that lead to positive responses. Humanistic psychology is an approach to personality that focuses on the self, subjective experience, and the capacity for fulfillment. It believes that humans are basically good, driven towards personal growth, and disturbances are a result of having needs blocked. Cognitive and physiological psychology examine the connection between biochemical and psychological effects, including how electrical stimulation of parts of the brain elicits different emotional responses. Evolutionary psychology examines behavioral processes in terms of their adaptive value for a species over the course of many generations. Multicultural psychology studies how culture is transmitted through socialization practices and how culture colors one’s view of the world, with an emphasis on understanding others from their point of view.
Chapter 2: Neurons are nerve cells that serve as the building blocks of the nervous system. Dendrites are extensions from the cell body of a neuron that receive incoming impulses, while axons are extensions of the cell body of a neuron that send impulses to other neurons. The myelin sheath is a layer of fatty cells that is tightly wrapped around the axon to insulate it and speed the movement of electrical impulses. An action potential is an electrical impulse that surges through an axon, caused by an influx of positive ions in the neuron. The synapse is the junction between the axon terminal of one neuron and the dendrites of another. Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter found throughout the nervous system that links motor neurons and muscles, while endorphins are a morphine-like neurotransmitter that is produced in the brain and is linked to pain control and pleasure. The central nervous system is the network of nerves contained within the brain and spinal cord, while the peripheral nervous system is the network of nerves that radiate from the central nervous system to the rest of the body.
The PNS comprises the somatic and autonomic nervous systems. Sensory neurons are neurons that send signals from the senses, skin, muscles, and internal organs to the central nervous system. Interneurons are central nervous system neurons that connect sensory inputs and motor outputs. Motor neurons are motion-producing neurons that transmit commands from the central nervous system to the muscles, glands, and organs. The skeletal nervous system is a branch of the peripheral nervous system that connects the CNS to the involuntary muscles, organs, and glands. The sympathetic nervous system is a branch of the autonomic nervous system that controls the involuntary activities of various organs and mobilizes the body for fight or flight, heightening arousal and energizing the body for action. The parasympathetic nervous system is a branch of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body and conserves energy. The endocrine system is a collection of ductless glands that regulate aspects of growth, reproduction, metabolism, and behavior by secreting hormones. Hormones are chemical messengers secreted from endocrine glands into the bloodstream to various organs throughout the body. The pituitary gland is a tiny gland in the brain that regulates growth and stimulates hormones in other endocrine glands at the command of the hypothalamus. The brainstem is the inner core of the brain that connects to the spinal cord and contains the medulla, pons, and reticular formation. The medulla is a brainstem structure that controls vital involuntary functions. The reticular formation is a group of nerve cells in the brainstem that help to control sleep, arousal, and attention. The cerebellum is a primitive brainstem structure that controls balance and coordinates complex voluntary movements. The limbic system is a set of loosely connected structures in the brain that help to regulate motivation, emotion, and memory. The amygdala is a limbic structure that controls fear, anger, and aggression. The hypothalamus is a tiny limbic structure in the brain that helps regulate the autonomic nervous system, endocrine glands, emotions, and basic drives. The cerebral cortex is the outermost covering of the brain, largely responsible for higher-order mental processes. The four lobes and their functions are the motor cortex, the area of the cortex that sends impulses to voluntary muscles; the sensory cortex; Broca’s area, a region in the left hemisphere of the brain that directs the muscle movements in the production of speech; and Wernicke’s area, a region in the left hemisphere of the brain that is involved in the comprehension of language. The corpus callosum is a bundle of nerve fibers that connects the left and right hemispheres. Split brain studies are a surgically produced condition in which the corpus callosum is severed, thus cutting the link between the left and right hemispheres of the brain.
Sensation is the processes by which our sense organs receive information from the environment. Perception is the processes by which people select, organize, and interpret sensations. The absolute threshold is the smallest amount of stimulation that can be detected. Weber’s law is the principle that the just-noticeable difference of a stimulus is a constant proportion despite variations in intensity. Sensory adaptation is a decline in sensitivity to a stimulus as a result of constant exposure. Wavelength and intensity are factors that affect perception. The pupil is the small round hole in the iris of the eye through which light passes. The iris is the ring of muscle tissue that gives eyes their color and controls the size of the pupil. The lens is a transparent structure in the eye that focuses light on the retina. Accommodation is the visual process by which lenses become rounded for viewing nearby objects and flatter for viewing remote objects. The retina is the rear multilayer part of the eye where rods and cones convert light into neural impulses. Rods are rod-shaped photoreceptor cells in the retina that are highly sensitive to light. Cones are cone-shaped photoreceptor cells in the retina that are sensitive to color. The optic nerve is the pathway that carries visual information from the eyeball to the brain. The blind spot is a part of the retina through which the optic nerve passes and is not responsive to light. Audition is the sense of hearing. Frequency and pitch are factors that affect perception. Retinal disparity is the difference between two images we see, and the greater the difference, the closer the object is to us. Relative brightness is a factor that affects perception. Perceptual set is the effects of prior experience and expectations on interpretations of sensory input. Gestalt is the form” or “whole” of perception. Figure-ground is the organization of the visual field into objects (figures) that stand out from their surroundings (ground). Grouping is a factor that affects perception, including proximity, similarity, continuity, and closure. Binocular and monocular cues are distance cues that enable us to perceive depth with one or both eyes.
Consciousness is an awareness of the sensations, thoughts, and feelings that one is attending to at a given moment. Selective attention is the ability to focus awareness on a single stimulus to the exclusion of other stimuli, as in the cocktail-party phenomenon. Circadian rhythm is a biological cycle, such as sleeping and waking, that occurs approximately every twenty-four hours. REM sleep is the rapid-eye-movement stage of sleep associated with dreaming. The stages of sleep and brain waves involved are insomnia, narcolepsy, and psychoactive drugs. Tolerance, withdrawal, and dependence are factors that affect addiction. Depressants and stimulants are classes of drugs that affect the central nervous system.
Hallucinogens are psychedelic drugs that distort perceptions and cause hallucinations, such as LSD and marijuana. Sleep apnea is a disorder in which a person repeatedly stops breathing during sleep and awakens gasping for air. Night terrors occur when a person jolts abruptly from a deep sleep in a state of panic and gives off a loud, bloodcurdling scream. According to Freud, manifest content is the conscious dream content that is remembered in the morning, while latent content is the unconscious, censored meaning of a dream. Hypnosis is a procedure that focuses a person’s attention, suggesting changes in their behavior or mental state. LSD is one of the most well-known illicit hallucinogens. Barbiturates are sedatives, and opiates are highly addictive drugs that depress neural activity and provide temporary relief from pain and anxiety, such as heroin and morphine. Amphetamines are stimulants, and hallucinations are sensory experiences that occur in the absence of actual stimulation.
Travis Wonders
Chapter 1
Behaviorism is a school of thought that defines psychology as the scientific study of observable behavior, focusing on stimulus-response relationships. Gestalt psychology is a school of thought rooted in the idea that the whole (perception) is greater than the sum of its parts (sensation).
Reaction to structuralism and functionalism: the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. Freud’s psychoanalysis is a theory of personality and method of psychotherapy, both of which assume that our motives are largely unconscious. He proposed the existence of the unconscious and attempted to explain personality motivation and mental disorders. Skinner’s theory states that organisms tend to repeat responses that lead to positive responses. The humanistic approach to personality focuses on the self, subjective experience, and the capacity for fulfillment. Humans are basically good, and humans are driven towards personal growth. Disturbances are a result of having needs blocked. Cognitive and physiological psychology examine the connection between biochemical and psychological effects. Evolutionary psychology examines behavioral processes in terms of adaptation value for a species over the course of many generations. Multicultural psychology studies how culture is transmitted through socialization practices and how culture colors one’s view of the world. It aims to understand others from their point of view.Chapter 2:A neuron is a nerve cell that serves as the building block of the nervous system. Dendrites are extensions from the cell body of a neuron that receive incoming impulses. Axons are extensions of the cell body of a neuron that send impulses to other neurons. The myelin sheath is a layer of fatty cells that is tightly wrapped around the axon to insulate it and speed up the movement of electrical impulses. An action potential is an electrical impulse that surges through an axon, caused by an influx of positive ions in the neuron. The synapse is the junction between the axon terminal of one neuron and the dendrites of another. Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter found throughout the nervous system that links the motor neurons and muscles. Endorphins are morphine-like neurotransmitters that are produced in the brain and are linked to pain control and pleasure. The central nervous system is the network of nerves contained within the brain and spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system is the network of nerves that radiate from the central nervous system to the rest of the body. The PNS comprises the somatic and autonomic nervous systems. Sensory neurons send signals from the senses, skin, muscles, and internal organs to the central nervous system. Interneurons are central nervous system neurons that connect sensory inputs and motor outputs. Motor neurons are motion-producing neurons that transmit commands from the central nervous system to the muscles, glands, and organs. The autonomic nervous system is the branch of the peripheral nervous system that connects the CNS to the involuntary muscles, organs, and glands. The sympathetic nervous system is a branch of the autonomic nervous system that controls the involuntary activities of various organs and mobilizes the body for fight or flight. It heightens arousal and energizes the body for action. The parasympathetic nervous system is a branch of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body and conserves energy. The endocrine system is a collection of ductless glands that regulate aspects of growth, reproduction, metabolism, and behavior by secreting hormones. Hormones are chemical messengers secreted from endocrine glands into the bloodstream to various organs throughout the body. The pituitary gland is a tiny gland in the brain that regulates growth and stimulates hormones in other endocrine glands at the command of the hypothalamus. The brainstem is the inner core of the brain that connects to the spinal cord and contains the medulla, pons, and reticular formation. The medulla is a brainstem structure that controls vital involuntary functions. The reticular formation is a group of nerve cells in the brainstem that help to control sleep, arousal, and attention. The cerebellum is a primitive brainstem structure that controls balance and coordinates complex voluntary movements. The limbic system is a set of loosely connected structures in the brain that help to regulate motivation, emotion, and memory. The amygdala is a limbic structure that controls fear, anger, and aggression. The hypothalamus is a tiny limbic structure in the brain that helps regulate the autonomic nervous system, endocrine glands, emotions, and basic drives. The cerebral cortex is the outermost covering of the brain, largely responsible for higher-order mental processes. The four lobes and their functions are the motor cortex, sensory cortex, Broca’s area, Wernicke’s area, and the corpus callosum. The corpus callosum is a bundle of nerve fibers that connects the left and right hemispheres. Split brain studies are a surgically produced condition in which the corpus callosum is severed, thus cutting the link between the left and right hemispheres of the brain.Chapter 3:Sensation is the process by which our sense organs receive information from the environment. Perception is the process by which people select, organize, and interpret sensations. The absolute threshold is the smallest amount of stimulation that can be detected. Weber’s law states that the just-noticeable difference of a stimulus is a constant proportion despite variations in intensity. Sensory adaptation is a decline in sensitivity to a stimulus as a result of constant exposure. Wavelength determines hue, while intensity determines brightness. The pupil is the small round hole in the iris of the eye through which light passes. The iris is the ring of muscle tissue that gives eyes their color and controls the size of the pupil. The lens is a transparent structure in the eye that focuses light on the retina. Accommodation is the process of modifying existing cognitive structures in response to new information, according to Piaget’s theory.
Also, the visual process by which lenses become rounded for viewing nearby objects and flatter for viewing remote objects.
Retina: The rear multilayer part of the eye where rods and cones convert light into neural impulses.
Rods: Rod-shaped photoreceptor cells in the retina that are highly sensitive to light.
Cones: Cone-shaped photoreceptor cells in the retina that are sensitive to color.
Optic nerve: The pathway that carries visual information from the eyeball to the brain.
Blind spot: A part of the retina through which the optic nerve passes. Lacking rods and cones, this spot is not responsive to light.
Audition: The sense of hearing.
Frequency: Pitch.
Retinal disparity: The difference between two images we see, the greater the difference, the closer the object is to us.
Relative brightness: Dimmer objects appear more distant.
Perceptual set: The effects of prior experience and expectations on interpretations of sensory input.
Gestalt: “Form” or “Whole”.
Figure-ground: The organization of the visual field into objects (figures) that stand out from their surroundings (ground).
Grouping: Proximity: we group close figures together.
Similarity: If figures are similar to each other we group them together.
Continuity: We perceive smooth, continuous patterns rather than discontinuous ones.
Closure: If a figure has gaps, we complete it by filling in the gaps to create a complete whole object.
Binocular cues: Monocular cues: Distance cues, such as linear perspective, that enable us to perceive depth with one eye.
Convergence: A binocular cue for depth perception involving the turning inward of the eyes as an object gets closer.
Interposition: Nearby objects partially block our view of more distant objects.
Relative height: Higher objects appear more distant.
Relative motion: When we move, objects at different distances change their relative positions in our visual image with the closest moving fastest.
Linear Perspective: We perceive the converging of what we know to be parallel lines as an indication of an increase of distance.
Chapter 4
Consciousness: An awareness of the sensations, thoughts, and feelings that one is attending to at a given moment.
Selective attention: The ability to focus awareness on a single stimulus to the exclusion of other stimuli, as in the cocktail-party phenomenon.
Circadian rhythm: A biological cycle, such as sleeping and waking, that occurs approximately every twenty-four hours.
REM sleep: The rapid-eye-movement stage of sleep associated with dreaming.
Stages of sleep and brain waves involved.
Insomnia: An inability to fall asleep, stay asleep, or get the amount of sleep needed to function during the day.
Narcolepsy: A sleep disorder characterized by irresistible and sudden attacks of REM sleep during the day.
Psychoactive drug: A chemical that alters perceptions, thoughts, moods, or behavior.
Tolerance.
Withdrawal.
Dependence: A physiological addiction in which a drug is needed to prevent symptoms of withdrawal.
Depressants: A class of drugs that slow down activity in the central nervous system (e.g., alcohol, barbiturates).
Stimulants: A class of drugs that excite the central nervous system and energize behavior (e.g., caffeine, cocaine).
Hallucinogens are psychedelic drugs that distort perceptions and cause hallucinations (e.g., LSD, marijuana). Sleep apnea is a disorder in which a person repeatedly stops breathing during sleep and awakens gasping for air. Night terrors occur when a person jolts abruptly from a deep sleep in a state of panic and gives off a loud, bloodcurdling scream. According to Freud, manifest content is the conscious dream content that is remembered in the morning, while latent content is the unconscious, censored meaning of a dream. Hypnosis is an attention-focusing procedure in which changes in a person’s behavior or mental state are suggested. LSD is one of the most well-known illicit hallucinogens. Barbiturates are sedatives, and opiates are a class of highly addictive drugs that depress neural activity and provide temporary relief from pain and anxiety (e.g., heroin, morphine). Amphetamines are stimulants, and hallucinations are sensory experiences that occur in the absence of actual stimulation.
