United StatesThe Influence of Green Groups on the Policy of the United StatesAbstract: This research examines the relationship between environmental groupsand the policies of the United States.
The United States political system hasbeen historically anthropocen-tric, or human centered. Environmental groupshave been attempting to change this to a biocentric or ecocentric viewpoint,which includes the rights of animals and the environment. These views arenature centered instead of human centered. This study will answer the questionof whether these groups have been effective at altering United States policies. This will be done through the study of views offered by both sides. Also, asurvey will be used to determine whether congressmen views are consistent withenvironmentalist views.
It will also present whether policy change has takenplace, and if these changes have remained intact through the study of pastcongressional decisions. Research Problem1. Research QuestionHave environmental groups’ strategies been successful at altering the policiesof the United States?2. Rational for the ResearchThis research will help environmental groups to identify the effectiveness oftheir strategies. This is necessary for these groups to effectively alter thepolicies of the United States, which is one of the largest polluters in theworld.
If their strategies are ineffective then it will be necessary for them toreassess their methods. Without the use productive methods these groups willnot be able to protect the environment. Animals, plants and the entireecosystem must have the same protection as humans have. An ecocentric viewpointestablishes the right of the environment to have legal standing. This givespeople the ability to defend the right of an animal to exist with the samerights as humans. Without this protection, people will be just as negativelyaffected as the environment.
The earth must be thought of as a living organism,if one part is hurt then the whole planet will feel the effects. Unfortunately,business and governments take the stance that the earth is more like a machine. That is, at times if a part is hurt it can be repaired, without it effecting thewhole system. Literature ReviewThe literature on environmental groups and their influence and activities isvast. Several themes concerning the groups’ influence in changing UnitedStates policy exist. The American Psychological Association has done studies onecocentric and anthropocentric attitudes (Thomas, 1994).
Ecocentric values havearisen recently as environmental problems have come to the public’s attention. Anthropocentric values have existed much longer. They have becomeinstitutionalized into our political and economic system. The movement toward environmental awareness arose in the political activism inthe 60’s. Although these values have recently been declining according toFinger (1993). These biocentric and anthropocentric views are also examined byWildes (1995).
Wildes also explains the beginning of the movement in the 60’s,and the number of similar theories developed during the same era. In his studyhe applies neo-marxism to the relationship towards Man and Nature. By doingthis he shows how the government and industry uses the environment for its ownuse, often neglecting the resulting effects. Dodson (1995) examines if either of these opposing viewpoints offer plausibleanswers to current problems. Dodson also explains how the groups interact. Through this interaction they form political policy.
Hampicke (1994) address thevulnerability of the species and ecosystems to permanent destruction. Alsoshown is how conserva-tion costs are not excessive as some in our governmentbelieve. Lichterman (1995) shows that green groups not only have problemsrelating towards our government, but also multicultural obstacles. Thesegroups must bring together several interests in order to form a unified strategyto present to the United States government. Environmental lobbyists have so far been unsuccessful in their efforts to amendexisting environmental laws. Chemical manufactur-ing and other industry’slobbies have been able to block their efforts.
They have used promising ofcampaign funding to influence Congress to support industries (Dowie, 1995). Senator Ted Stevens opposed the building of a pipeline across Alaska’s coastalplain in 1977. He pointed out the tragic environmental costs of oildevelopment in his home state. Now he is a part of a group of senators who areleading efforts to roll back environmental laws (Foley, 1995).
Congress has been modifying the country’s environmental policy to suit businessinterests during its first eight months in power. Senator Bob Dole sponsored arisk assessment bill. This bill required that new federal human health andsafety standards be weighed against their economic costs. This bill wasdefeated by the Natural Resources Defense Council lobby.
Congress has alsoattached over fifty riders to various appropriations bills to all anti-environment projects while minimizing public knowledge of the bills (Adams,1995, 3). One of these riders was to a federal budget cutting bill. Thisrider allowed private companies to salvage damaged trees in national lands. Other similar riders include making it legal to consider the sale of publicassets toward the reduction of the budget deficit. Another bill passed bannedthe addition of more species to the Endangered Species list and allows increasedlogging at Tongass National Forest (Adams, 1995, 2).
Environmental policy is positively affected by pressure from customers,shareholders, government regulations, neighborhood groups and community groups. Although environmental policy is negatively affected by lobby pressure fromother groups. This is from empirical data from firms that have an officialpolicy for dealing with environmental questions (Henriques, 1996). Tension between social equity and environmental politics has existed in theUnited States over the past thirty years. This tension has existed on a socialclasses basis, a gender basis, a racial basis, and an economic basis.
Severalof these tensions however are more perceived than real. There is a possiblecommon grounds for these two goals (Paehlke, 1993). Research Concepts and Hypotheses1. Research Concepts and VariablesChange In United States policy is dependent upon the action of interest groups. These groups are only able to alter policy if there actions are effective atpromoting their cause. This can be done through the support of the people, orthe voters.
It can also be done by directly lobbying Congress for the passageof a law, or lobbying to prevent a passage of law. It is also possible todirectly gain public and political attention through protests and other actionsthat draw people’s attention. The voting records of congressmen and theircurrent view will be examined. Environmental lobbying efforts will also beexamined in order to conduct this research. 2.
Research Propositions and HypothesesThe United States government is anthropocentric in its attitude towards theenvironment. Although there was a surge of environmental awareness in the 60’sthis has declined in the recent decade. Green groups have been trying to shiftthis viewpoint towards a biocentric view. They are faced not only with theproblem with relating to government, but also to different cultures. Witheffective strategies they will be successful at influencing political decisionmaking.
The effectiveness of their methods must be analyzed in order to ensurethat what they are doing is worthwhile. MethodologyIn order to research the effectiveness of environmental groups at alteringpolicy of the United States government, a close-ended questionnaire will becreated. This questionnaire will be sent to congressmen. The questionnairewill attempt to determine the congressmen’s standing on different issues.
These issues will be theoretical policy choices. The policy choices willeither have a biocentric standing or a anthropocentric standing. A Likert scalewill be used to determine how the congressman stands on an issue. A sample ofthe survey is included at the end of this proposal. It will also be important to determine whether the congressman is a Democrat orRepublican. The state that the congressman is from will also be important todetermine.
These two indicators are important because of possible alternativeinfluences on the congressman. Validity of the answers can be determined bycomparing answers with recent voting habits of individual respondents. The lobbying efforts of green groups will also be studied by examining theirpolitical activities, which include lobbying and other forms of politicalpressure. If there is a change in the congressmen’s environmental positionsover a period of time this will need to be examined closely. The politicalpressure from environmental groups at the time of change will also need to beexamined.
If there has been consistent change in congressmen’s views and pressure fromenvironmental groups at that time, then this will be considered as a positiveinfluence by the green groups. If there is a change in policy and no pressurefrom green groups is noticeable then the reasons should be deduced. Thereasoning behind this change could be used to help the environmental groups. If there has been no change in policy or policy has changed against theenvironment, then the methods used by green groups will not be seen aseffective. The importance of determining this is to give the groups anopportunity to change there methods in order to be more effective. Work ScheduleIt will take about one week to prepare the survey and mailing list.
After thisthe results should be back within four to six weeks. While waiting for theresults, the voting record of congressmen will be examined. Also during thisperiod, recent lobbying efforts by environmental groups will be recorded. Itwill then take about two more weeks to compare the data.
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1995. A Congressional Sampler: Rollbacks, Rhetoric, andGreenbacks in the World of Washington’s Anti-Greens. Amicus Journal. 17, 3: 13. Hampicke, U.
1994. Ethics and Economics of Conservation. Biology ConservationJournal. 67, 3: 219-231. Henriques, Irene and Perry Sadorsky.
1996. The Determinants of anEnvironmentally Responsive Firm: An Empirical Approach. Journal of EnvironmentalEconomics and Management. 30, 3: 381.
Lichterman, Paul. 1995. Piecing Together Multicultural Community: CulturalDifferences in Community Building among Grass-Roots Environmentalists. SocialProblems Journal 42, 4: 513-534. Paehlke, Robert. 1993.
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1994. The Value Basis of Environmental Concern. Journal of SocialIssues. 50, 3: 65-84. Wildes, F.
T. 1995. Recent Themes in Conservation Philosophy and Policy in theUnited States. Environmental Conservation Journal. 22, 2: 143-150.Survey1) What is your political affiliation?2) Which state do you represent?Please answer the following questions in terms of (1) for strongly agree to (10)for strongly disagree.3) Should genetic engineering be allowed to increase the production of a farmeven if there is a slight risk to the environment?1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 104) Should a nuclear power plant be allowed to be built to meet the local energyneeds of an area?1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 105) Should there be mandatory recycling laws even though not all areas have anexisting recycling system?1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 106) Should residents be allowed to set thermostat readings to desired levels eventhough it may use more energy?1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 107) Should farmers be allowed to protect their livestock by hunting indigenouswild animals?1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 108) Should public parks be open to increased mining or logging to spur theeconomy of an area?1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 109) Should federal laws outlawing the possession of feathers or other parts ofbirds of prey be strictly enforced?1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1010) Should industry be forced to reduce air and water pollution originating fromits factories even if it means loss of employees and reduced job opportunities?1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011) Should the use of private automobiles be restricted in order to reduce airpollution?1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1012) Should the government increase taxes on products that harm the environment?1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10History
